Values: How They Form and Change

Several psychological and sociological mechanisms have been proposed to explain the formation and change of values in individuals. These mechanisms highlight the interplay of biological, cognitive, emotional, social, and cultural influences. The following table summarizes the mechanisms for the formation and change of values, and the mechanisms are outlined after the table.

Mechanism	Rules in the Mechanism
Genetic and Evolutionary Influences	Genetic predisposition → Influences personality traits → Shapes value priorities
Socialization Processes	Social interactions (family, education, religion) → Reinforce norms → Internalization of values
Cognitive and Emotional Development	Cognitive consistency + Emotional reinforcement → Strengthens value adherence
Social Learning and Cultural Transmission	Exposure to cultural and social models → Shapes long-term value preferences
Life Events and Personal Experiences	Significant life events → Reassessment of priorities → Value shifts
Economic and Technological Development	Economic development + Technological exposure → Shift from survival values to self-expression values
Cognitive Dissonance and Adaptation	Conflict between values and experiences → Psychological discomfort → Value adaptation
Social Movements and Collective Influence	Societal and generational change → Shift in collective values → New normative standards

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Mechanisms of Value Formation

Values develop early in life and are shaped by genetic predispositions, socialization, and life experiences.

1. Genetic and Evolutionary Influences

• Values can be influenced by genetic factors, with certain personality traits being partially heritable. Research suggests that some core values, such as a preference for social cooperation or risk aversion, may have evolutionary advantages and therefore be more prevalent in populations over time.
• Evolutionary psychology posits that values promoting survival and group cohesion, such as fairness and reciprocity, have been naturally selected.
• Rule: Genetic predisposition → Influences personality traits → Shapes value priorities

2. Socialization Processes

• Parental Influence: Parents transmit values through direct teaching, reinforcement, and modeling (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994). For example, children raised in households emphasizing “honesty” are more likely to internalize that value.
• Education and Institutions: Schools instill values such as discipline, responsibility, and civic duty (Parsons, 1951).
• Religion and Ideology: Religious teachings shape fundamental values related to morality, altruism, and social responsibility (Rokeach, 1973).
• Rule: Social interactions (family, education, religion) → Reinforce norms → Internalization of values

3. Cognitive and Emotional Development

• Cognitive Consistency Theory: Individuals strive for internal coherence, aligning new experiences with pre-existing values (Festinger, 1957).
• Moral Emotions: Feelings such as guilt, shame, or pride reinforce value-based behavior (Haidt, 2001).
• Rule: Cognitive consistency + Emotional reinforcement → Strengthens value adherence

4. Social Learning and Cultural Transmission

• Observational Learning: Individuals adopt values by observing role models (Bandura, 1986).
• Enculturation: Cultural norms and traditions shape value priorities over time (Hofstede, 2001).
• Rule: Exposure to cultural and social models → Shapes long-term value preferences

Mechanisms of Value Change

Values, while relatively stable, can shift due to life experiences, social changes, and psychological adaptation.

1. Life Events and Personal Experiences

• Major Life Transitions: Marriage, parenthood, career changes, or trauma can shift values (Hitlin & Piliavin, 2004). For example, a person may prioritize “career success” in youth but later shift towards “family orientation.”
• Crisis and Adversity: Economic hardships or political instability can reshape priorities, such as increasing the importance of “security” over “freedom.”
• Rule: Significant life events → Reassessment of priorities → Value shifts

2. Economic and Technological Development

• Inglehart’s Postmaterialism Theory (1997): As societies become wealthier, values shift from survival-based (security, conformity) to self-expression-based (individualism, creativity).
• Technological Influence: Digitalization and globalization expose individuals to diverse perspectives, potentially altering value systems.
• Rule: Economic development + Technological exposure → Shift from survival values to self-expression values

3. Cognitive Dissonance and Adaptation

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957): When new experiences conflict with existing values, individuals adjust their values or behaviors to reduce psychological discomfort.
• Identity Adaptation: People modify values to maintain social belonging or professional alignment.
• Rule: Conflict between values and experiences → Psychological discomfort → Value adaptation

4. Social Movements and Collective Influence

• Normative Pressure: Societal changes, such as gender equality movements, shift value structures by redefining norms.
• Generational Shifts: Younger generations often develop values different from their predecessors due to exposure to new social, political, and technological environments (Twenge et al., 2012).
• Rule: Societal and generational change → Shift in collective values → New normative standards

References

• Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice-Hall.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford University Press.
• Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994). Impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 4-19.
• Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108(4), 814-834.
• Hitlin, S., & Piliavin, J. A. (2004). Values: Reviving a dormant concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 359-393.
• Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. Sage.
• Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton University Press.
• Olver, J. M., & Mooradian, T. A. (2003). Personality traits and personal values: A conceptual and empirical integration. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(1), 109-125.
• Rokeach, M. (1973). The Nature of Human Values. Free Press.
• Schaller, M., Murray, D. R., & Bangerter, A. (2017). Implications of the behavioral immune system for social cognition, social interaction, and social influence. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 55, 77-127.
• Twenge, J. M., Campbell, W. K., & Carter, N. T. (2012). Declines in trust and social capital: The role of generational shifts and the internet. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(10), 1343-1357.