Goals: Factors Influencing Goal Selection

Research in psychology has extensively examined how individuals choose which goals to pursue, the factors that determine short-term versus long-term goal selection, the influence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, the role of personality traits, and the impact of environmental and social contexts on goal setting. Understanding how individuals choose goals can provide insight into human decision-making and inform strategies for influencing the choice of goals through decision governance.

This text is part of the series on the design of decision governance. Decision Governance refers to values, principles, practices designed to improve the quality of decisions. Find all texts on decision governance here, including “What is Decision Governance?” here.

How Do Individuals Choose Which Goals to Pursue?

Individuals select goals based on a complex interplay of cognitive, emotional, and social factors. Decision-making theories suggest that goal selection involves evaluating the feasibility, desirability, and expected outcomes of potential goals (Gollwitzer & Oettingen, 2012). Cognitive theories of motivation, such as Expectancy-Value Theory, propose that people pursue goals they perceive as both attainable and valuable (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). If an individual believes they have the necessary skills and resources to achieve a goal and that the goal aligns with their values and aspirations, they are more likely to commit to it.

Additionally, self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) suggests that individuals are more likely to choose goals that satisfy their psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. People tend to prioritize goals that provide a sense of personal agency, enhance their abilities, and foster social connections. Furthermore, goal-setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990) highlights that individuals often select specific and challenging goals because they offer a sense of accomplishment and provide motivation for sustained effort.

What Factors Influence the Selection of Short-Term Versus Long-Term Goals?

The selection of short-term versus long-term goals depends on multiple psychological, situational, and individual difference factors. Research suggests that individuals prioritize short-term goals when immediate rewards are salient, while long-term goals require higher levels of self-regulation and delayed gratification (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989). The ability to delay gratification, often linked to self-control and executive function, plays a crucial role in determining whether an individual pursues goals with immediate benefits or those requiring sustained effort over time.

Temporal discounting theory (Frederick, Loewenstein, & O’Donoghue, 2002) explains that individuals tend to devalue rewards that are further in the future. Consequently, long-term goals often require strategies such as breaking them into smaller, more manageable short-term objectives to maintain motivation and persistence. Research by Steel and König (2006) indicates that people are more likely to pursue long-term goals when they perceive them as personally meaningful and when they can visualize the incremental steps necessary to achieve them.

External factors such as deadlines, social pressures, and organizational structures also influence the prioritization of short-term versus long-term goals. In work and educational settings, individuals may be required to balance immediate performance targets with broader career development aspirations (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). The interaction between external demands and internal motivation determines how individuals allocate resources and effort toward different types of goals.

How Do Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations Shape Goal Selection?

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations play a crucial role in determining the types of goals individuals pursue. Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for its inherent satisfaction, while extrinsic motivation involves pursuing goals for external rewards or recognition (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Research shows that individuals driven by intrinsic motivation tend to set goals that align with personal interests and values, leading to greater persistence and satisfaction (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). Intrinsically motivated goals often involve personal growth, mastery, and self-improvement, and they tend to produce higher levels of engagement and well-being. In contrast, extrinsic motivation, such as pursuing financial rewards, social approval, or career advancement, can also be effective in goal pursuit but may lead to lower long-term satisfaction if the goal is not personally meaningful (Kasser & Ryan, 1996).

A balance between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations can enhance goal commitment. Studies suggest that when external rewards support an individual’s intrinsic interests—such as a student receiving a scholarship for excelling in a subject they enjoy—motivation is reinforced rather than diminished (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). However, when extrinsic motivators undermine autonomy or create pressure, they can reduce intrinsic interest in the goal, leading to lower persistence and enjoyment.

What Role Does Personality Play in Determining the Types of Goals Individuals Set?

Personality traits significantly influence goal selection, with individual differences shaping the types of aspirations people set and their approach to achieving them. The Big Five personality traits—openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism—have been widely studied in relation to goal setting (McCrae & Costa, 1999).

Conscientious individuals tend to set structured, long-term goals that require persistence and discipline, such as career advancement or financial planning (Roberts, O’Donnell, & Robins, 2004). High openness to experience is associated with setting creative and exploratory goals, such as pursuing artistic endeavors or engaging in travel. Extraverts are more likely to set social and leadership-oriented goals, while agreeable individuals may prioritize goals related to helping others and fostering relationships. In contrast, individuals high in neuroticism may set avoidance-oriented goals, focusing on minimizing stress or preventing negative outcomes (Elliot & Thrash, 2002).

How Do Environmental and Social Contexts Influence Goal Setting?

Environmental and social factors play a critical role in shaping goal selection. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1986) suggests that individuals model their goals based on observed behaviors and societal expectations. Family, cultural background, and peer influence contribute to goal formation, as individuals internalize norms and values from their surroundings.

Educational and occupational environments also influence goal setting. Schools and workplaces establish performance standards that shape individuals’ aspirations and priorities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Competitive environments may encourage goal setting focused on achievement and recognition, while collaborative settings promote goals related to teamwork and cooperation.

References

• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.
• Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627-668.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Springer.
• Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109-132.
• Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(5), 804-818.
• Frederick, S., Loewenstein, G., & O’Donoghue, T. (2002). Time discounting and time preference: A critical review. Journal of Economic Literature, 40(2), 351-401.
• Gollwitzer, Peter M., and Gabriele Oettingen. “Goal pursuit.” The Oxford handbook of human motivation (2012): 208-231.
• Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 440-458.
• Kasser, Tim, and Richard M. Ryan. “Further examining the American dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals.” Personality and social psychology bulletin 22.3 (1996): 280-287.
• Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Prentice Hall.
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• Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244(4907), 933-938.
• Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 482-497.