Goals: How Goals Form and Change

Goal formation and change are dynamic processes influenced by motivational factors, cognitive mechanisms, feedback loops, and social environments. Whether through deliberate planning (Goal-Setting Theory), subconscious adjustments (Cognitive Dissonance), or external pressures (Social Comparison), individuals adapt goals. Understanding these mechanisms can help include or remove rules to decision governance to stabilize or destabilize goals in ways which help improve decision quality.

This text is part of the series on the design of decision governance. Decision Governance refers to values, principles, practices designed to improve the quality of decisions. Find all texts on decision governance here, including “What is Decision Governance?” here.

1. Motivational Theories of Goal Formation

1.1. Expectancy-Value Theory

Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) posits that people select goals based on two primary factors:

• Expectancy: The perceived likelihood of success in achieving the goal.
• Value: The perceived importance or benefit of achieving the goal.

According to Atkinson (1957), individuals are more likely to adopt goals that they believe they can achieve and that offer meaningful rewards. When either expectancy or value changes, goals may be abandoned or adjusted. This dynamic aspect of goal-setting implies that goal persistence depends on continuous evaluation of its attainability and worth. Individuals assess various factors, such as prior experiences, the presence of obstacles, and the availability of resources, when determining whether to sustain or change their goals.

1.2. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) suggests that people form goals based on three fundamental psychological needs:

• Autonomy: The desire for control over one’s actions.
• Competence: The need to feel capable and effective.
• Relatedness: The need for social connection and belonging.

SDT differentiates between intrinsic goals (driven by internal satisfaction, such as personal growth) and extrinsic goals (motivated by external rewards, such as money or social approval). Over time, people may shift from extrinsic to intrinsic goals as their internal motivations develop. The transition between these goal orientations often depends on life experiences, external feedback, and the extent to which individuals feel a sense of agency over their pursuits. Motivation plays a critical role in sustaining long-term goals, as intrinsic goals tend to be more enduring and self-reinforcing compared to extrinsic ones.

2. Cognitive Mechanisms in Goal Formation and Change

2.1. Goal-Setting Theory

Locke and Latham (1990) proposed that goal formation is a deliberate cognitive process where specific, challenging goals enhance performance more than vague or easy goals. Goals are revised when individuals encounter feedback that indicates a mismatch between effort and outcome.

• Commitment to a goal depends on clarity, attainability, and self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to achieve it).
• When performance feedback suggests goal infeasibility, people either lower their aspirations or increase their effort.
• Goals function as self-regulatory mechanisms, guiding individuals toward structured plans that optimize their chances of success.
• The establishment of sub-goals can aid in making long-term objectives feel more attainable, allowing for incremental progress evaluations.

2.2. Cognitive Dissonance and Goal Revision

According to Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory (1957), individuals experience psychological discomfort when their behavior or outcomes contradict their existing goals. To resolve this discomfort, they either:

• Change their goals to align with their experiences.
• Adjust their beliefs about the likelihood of achieving their goal.
• Engage in rationalization strategies that justify deviations from their original objectives.
• Seek external validation or reassessment to modify goal relevance.

Cognitive dissonance is an essential factor in goal persistence and modification, as it shapes how individuals interpret setbacks and whether they remain committed to their initial aspirations.

3. Feedback and Adaptive Goal Regulation

3.1. Control Theory and Self-Regulation

Carver and Scheier (1982) developed Control Theory, which suggests that individuals regulate their goals using a feedback loop:

1. Compare current progress to goal expectations.
2. Adjust effort, strategy, or goal based on discrepancies.
3. Monitor new feedback and refine goals accordingly.

If progress is below expectations, individuals either:

• Increase effort and persistence.
• Modify their goal to make it more achievable.
• Shift focus toward an alternative goal that offers greater feasibility.
• Utilize feedback mechanisms to refine the pathway to goal completion.

3.2. The Role of Negative and Positive Feedback

Feedback does not always lead to persistence; it can also cause goal disengagement:

• Negative feedback (failure or unexpected obstacles) can lead to abandoning a goal if persistence is deemed futile.
• Positive feedback can strengthen commitment to a goal and increase motivation.
• Incremental achievements serve as reinforcing mechanisms, sustaining momentum in long-term pursuits.
• Adaptive goal regulation ensures that individuals maintain resilience and flexibility in response to feedback.

4. Social and Environmental Influences on Goal Formation and Change

4.1. Social Comparison Theory

Festinger (1954) proposed that individuals compare themselves to others when setting goals. People adjust their goals based on:

• Upward comparisons (aspiring to match or exceed high achievers).
• Downward comparisons (reducing aspirations when perceiving others struggle).
• Evaluations of their relative standing within a group or organization.
• The perceived attainability of modeled behaviors.

4.2. Goal Priming and External Influences

Research in goal priming (Bargh et al., 2001) suggests that environmental cues can activate specific goals outside of conscious awareness. Exposure to success-related words or images can increase motivation, while negative cues can diminish goal pursuit. The priming effect highlights how external stimuli shape cognitive processes and influence goal-directed behavior.

4.3. Social Identity and Cultural Influences

Tajfel & Turner’s Social Identity Theory (1979) argues that individuals set goals based on group identity and societal expectations. Goals shift when:

• Social norms change.
• Group membership alters one’s priorities.
• Cultural expectations redefine the value placed on specific objectives.
• The influence of collective goals supersedes individual aspirations.

References

• Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64(6), 359-372.
• Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barndollar, K., & Trötschel, R. (2001). The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 1014-1027.
• Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92(1), 111-135.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Springer Science & Business Media.
• Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117-140.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.
• Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Prentice Hall.
• Luce, M. F. (1998). Choosing to avoid: Coping with negatively emotion-laden consumer decisions. Journal of Consumer Research, 24(4), 409-433.
• March, J. G., & Shapira, Z. (1992). Variable risk preferences and the focus of attention. Psychological Review, 99(1), 172-183.
• Shah, J. Y., Friedman, R., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 1261-1280.
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, 33(47), 74.